Impact factor is the average number of citations. Greifzu, F., Kalogeraki, E. & Lwel, S. Environmental enrichment preserved lifelong ocular dominance plasticity, but did not improve visual abilities. 93, 14341443 (2005). New York, NY: Academic Press. Cogn. Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol. Emot. USA 115, E5144E5153 (2018). Pekarek, B. T., Hunt, P. J. PLoS One, 3(8), 231245. The physical growth of children is treated in human development. J. Neurosci. Neuroreport, 12(13), 29752979. Commun. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1043-2760(02)00690-2, McLaughlin, K. A., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. Oncotarget 7, 1911119123 (2016). Comput. Environmental variability may also be intrinsically rewarding, increasing dopamine levels, thereby boosting plasticity162,163,164. Power, J. D. et al. 22, 143147 (2011). 7, 7681 (2016). 1). Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 14, 515534. This evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that lower SES is associated with accelerated cortical thinning throughout childhood and adolescence. Infant attachment and temperament as predictors of subsequent externalizing problems and cardiac physiology. Toddler fearfulness is linked to individual differences in error-related negativity during preschool. B Biol. Describe factors which affect children's development in the: short term Chechik, G., Meilijson, I. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. Cogn. Effects of therapeutic interventions for foster children on behavioral problems, caregiver attachment, and stress regulatory neural systems. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00716.x, Crawford, T. N., Livesley, W. J., Jang, K. L., Shaver, P. R., Cohen, P., & Ganiban, J. PubMed Central & Lerch, J. P. Environmental enrichment is associated with rapid volumetric brain changes in adult mice. The impact of socioeconomic status across early life on age at menarche among a racially diverse population of girls. Neurosci. A., Petersen, S. E. & Schlaggar, B. L. The task B problem and other considerations in developmental functional neuroimaging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(5), 817838. Savalia, N. K. et al. Med. 283, 20152439 (2016). Cognitive stimulation as a mechanism linking socioeconomic status with executive function: a longitudinal investigation. Language exposure relates to structural neural connectivity in childhood. Although longitudinal observational studies are useful, intervention studies are necessary to directly test whether childrens early experiences cause slower or faster brain development. (Eds.). Kim, M.-S. et al. USA https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1904931116 (2019). Int. Early experiences of threat, but not deprivation, are associated with accelerated biological aging in children and adolescents. NeuroImage 124, 473486 (2016). Rueda, M. R., Rothbart, M. K., McCandliss, B. D., Saccomanno, L. & Posner, M. I. Do neural responses to rejection depend on attachment style? 6, 4257 (2002). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33(2), 8188. 36, 21222133 (2016). The converse of this argument is that specific cognitive inputs might delay synaptic pruning in relevant brain circuitry. These same physiological processes can be activated by other experiences associated with lower SES, including exposure to environmental toxins (such as lead or air pollution)79, poorer sleep quality80 and less opportunity for physical activity81,82,83,84. Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA, Kirby Deater-Deckard,Mamatha Chary&Sarah McCormick, You can also search for this author in The effects of family socioeconomic status on psychological and neural mechanisms as well as their sex differences. Dion, M. L., Sumner, J. L. & Mitchell, S. M. Gendered citation patterns across political science and social science methodology fields. Behav. Proc. Therefore, it is difficult to infer broad developmental processes from examining links between specific regions42. Leonard, J. Annales de Biologie Clinique - Impact Factor, Overall Ranking, Rating A third possible mechanism by which chronic stress may accelerate brain development is that young individuals process threat as an overall signal of lack of protection and support that is, they receive cues that the environment requires maturity and this triggers adaptive top-down processes that cause development to proceed more quickly. Proc. These include the idea that we may be providing fewer services to some youth based on biological factors, and that information about biological risk could potentially lead to discrimination or labeling. Nat. Foster, in Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology, 2004 1.2.1 Biological Factors. Analyse the impact of environmental factors on children's development Brain image corresponding to grey line2 adapted with permission from ref.19, CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Together, integration and segregation constitute the unique property of small-worldness found in adult brain networks: the perhaps counterintuitive presence of high levels of both segregation and integration at many different scales (see ref.48 for a recent review). bioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.01.20.912881 (2020). Proc. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2602_4, Kim, P., Leckman, J., Mayes, L., Feldman, R., Wang, X., & Swain, J. "Developmental Dyscalculia (DD) is a specific learning disorder that is characterised by impairments in learning basic arithmetic facts, processing numerical magnitude and performing accurate and fluent calculations" (British Dyslexia, 2015). 20, 327348 (2010). ISSN 1471-003X (print). Environmental enrichment increases neuronal secretion of the cytokine interleukin-33 (IL-33), which signals to microglia to engulf PNNs, increasing synaptic plasticity141. Brain images in the lower part of the figure adapted with permission from ref.64, OUP. The authors declare that they have no disclosure. Maturation at the cellular level probably gives rise to these macroscale developmental changes. A. et al. Another area for future work involves linking histology and electrophysiology data to structural and functional MRI findings in animal models to facilitate translation to human work. Diamond, M. C. Response of the brain to enrichment. In adulthood, enrichment keeps inhibition at juvenile levels, prolonging early periods of plasticity135,136,137. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy, glutamate chemical exchange saturation transfer, GABA chemical exchange saturation transfer, Extracellular matrix organization (including perineuronal nets), Multicompartment diffusion imaging (for example, neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging or soma and neurite density imaging), Fractional anisotropy or mean diffusivity from diffusion imaging; multicompartment diffusion imaging; T1-weighted to T2-weighted ratio; magnetization transfer; quantitative MRI, Levels of neurotransmitters (such as dopamine, acetylcholine or serotonin), Positron emission tomography, functional MRI or resting-state functional MRI of neuromodulatory nuclei. Future empirical work will help us refine a model of how specific aspects of early experiences alter the pace of brain development, with consequences for cognition and learning. A multidimensional construct, SES is typically measured at the household level (for example, parental income, education or occupation) or the neighbourhood level (for instance, neighbourhood crime rate, poverty levels or median income). LeWinn, K. Z., Sheridan, M. A., Keyes, K. M., Hamilton, A. Few articles have examined both functional and structural brain development in the context of SES, and little is known about therelative ordering of trajectories of cortical thinning, white matter development and functional network segregation. Neuroscience Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, PA, USA, Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA, Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA, Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA, Department of Physics & Astronomy, College of Arts & Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA, Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA, Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA, You can also search for this author in Impact of in-scanner head motion on multiple measures of functional connectivity: relevance for studies of neurodevelopment in youth. Bull. The application of network methods to developmental data is still in its infancy, as researchers take on the challenge of describing nodes and edges of brain networks in a biologically accurate and meaningful way171,172. Psychological Bulletin, 141, 602654. The inset shows a schematic of potential cellular underpinnings of cortical thickness as measured by MRI: glial number and size, neuron number and size, synaptic complexity and myelination14,15,16. PLoS ONE 9, e94423 (2014). However, some studies have found the opposite pattern: higher SES has been associated with greater functional connectivity between limbic regions that typically show age-related increases in functional connectivity over development39,40,41. Volkow, N. D., Gordon, J. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 516536. J. Neurosci. Natl Acad. 9, 215221 (2017). Paid parental leave policies and infant mortality rates in OECD countries: Policy implications for the United States. Relationships between parental education and childhood experiences may also have been different when todays 80-year-olds were children from how they are for todays 6-year-olds, making retrospective report of SES in adults difficult to map to current developmental research. NeuroImage 173, 298310 (2018). 24, 669672 (2020). Neuropsychologia, 48(10), 30373044. Avoidant attachment and hemispheric lateralisation of the processing of attachment- and emotion-related words. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55376-4_3, OConnor, T. G., & Croft, C. M. (2001). Biological Factors that Affect a Child's Development - UK Essays American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(5), 924932. PLoS One, 8(8), e70247. Panchanathan, K. & Frankenhuis, W. E. The evolution of sensitive periods in a model of incremental development. Analyse the impact of environmental factors on children's development. Human Brain Mapping, 30(11), 35533562. Dir. Brain size, life history, and metabolism at the marsupial/placental dichotomy. Hum. Andrea M. Rehman, Jacob A. M. Stadler, Nadia Hoffman, Nastassja Koen, Heather J. Zar, Dan J. Stein Risk and protective factors for child development: An observational South African birth cohort Kirsten Ann Donald, Catherine J. Wedderburn, Whitney Barnett, Raymond T. Nhapi, Andrea M. Rehman, Jacob A. M. Stadler, Nadia Hoffman, Nastassja Koen, A., Leerkes, E. M., & Marcovitch, S. (2012). USA 115, 91939197 (2018). Bower, J. M.) 149154 (Springer, 1998). Environmental enrichment enhances synaptic plasticity by internalization of striatal dopamine transporters. Increased myelination is not always observed following early-life stress: one study found that early social isolation leads to a decrease in myelination in the prefrontal cortex126. Effects of early experience on childrens recognition of facial displays of emotion. Repeated exposure to negative experiences would lead to maturation of the networks that process these experiences, and would augment glucocorticoid levels, allostatic load and inflammatory processes that age the entire body. One study found that the expression of the genes encoding the glucocorticoid receptor and the androgen receptor explained the most variance in cortical thinning in low-income female adolescents living in high-inequality neighbourhoods, suggestive of links between stress and both accelerated puberty and cortical thinning24. Analyse the impact of biological factors on children's development. Behav. Methodological advances are necessary to fully understand how early experiences affect the pace of brain development. 3237194 2134669478 3.13casestudyunit.docx - 1.2 Analyse the impact of & Miller-Johnson, S. Early childhood education: young adult outcomes from the Abecedarian project. Sci. Journal of Family Psychology, 31(1), 4150. How Does The Environment Influence A Child's Growth And Development? Am. Segregation in brain networks changes markedly over development, and can be measured at several scales. Proc. Income inequality, gene expression, and brain maturation during adolescence. In biologically motivated models of network development, delaying synaptogenesis in higher-order layers of a network leads to greater energy efficiency and faster learning after development30. 21, 3245 (2017). J. Neurosci. Enrichment paradigms can also enhance plasticity in adults long past juvenile critical periods138 by reducing inhibition137,139, decreasing PNN stability139,140,141 or increasing myelin remodelling142, all potent contributors to plasticity. Econ. Early-life stress is associated with impairment in cognitive control in adolescence: An fMRI study. Biol. Cell 182, 388403.e15 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.11.008, Johnson, K., Page, A., Williams, H., Wassemer, E., & Whitehouse, W. (2002). Socioeconomic disadvantage and altered corticostriatal circuitry in urban youth. Biological Psychiatry, 52(11), 10661078. Excluding self-citations of the authors of the current Perspective, for our references the proportions are 26% woman (first author)/woman (last author), 20% man/woman, 21% woman/man and 33% man/man. Internet Explorer). Vetencourt, J. F. M. et al. Evol. In this Perspective, we have considered evidence that experiences associated with childhood SES affect not only the outcome but also the pace of brain development, with potential influences on brain plasticity throughout life. Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Mauney, S. A. et al. Cereb. Brain responses to facial expressions by adults with different attachmentorientations. However, surprisingly little is known about whether and how experiences associated with childhood SES affect the trajectory of brain maturation. Neurosci. B., Wu, J. Gao, W. et al. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-1727, Escobar, M. J., Rivera-Rei, A., Decety, J., Huepe, D., Cardona, J. F., Canales-Johnson, A., & Manes, F. (2013). Objective: To investigate the effects of biological and social factors on the cognitive development of very low birth weight children, a longitudinal follow-up study was conducted from birth to 3.6 years of age. Krishnadas, R. et al. Brain networks and cognitive architectures. We highlight the few longitudinal studies on SES and brain development but, because these studies are rare, we also draw on cross-sectional studies of relationships between SES and brain structure and function across development9. USA 111, 11501155 (2014). Aging 41, 130137 (2016). (2002). As in studies of stress, animal models allow us to investigate the causal influence of cognitive enrichment on brain development. Similarly, working memory training in young children aged 46 years results in changes in attention-related brain activity that resemble those that occur with maturation155. 313335). Other rs-fMRI studies also suggest that lower SES is associated with faster functional development: in youth aged 617 years, lower SES was associated with weaker connectivity in corticostriatal connections that typically showed decreases in strength with age over development37,38. 14, 30 (2020). B., Gettler, L. T. & Kuzawa, C. W. Menarcheal timing is accelerated by favorable nutrition but unrelated to developmental cues of mortality or familial instability in Cebu, Philippines. Brain regions shown in red indicate positive relationships between SES and cortical thickness (grey line2, ref.19; grey line3, ref.8; grey line4, ref.22; grey line5, ref.18; grey line6, ref.25; grey line7, ref.107; grey line8, ref.36; grey line9, ref.20; grey line10, ref.24; grey line11, ref.26). Psychiatry https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.09.008 (2018). & Lambert, H. K. Childhood adversity and neural development: Deprivation and threat as distinct dimensions of early experience. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00829.x, Patton, D., Costich, J. F., & Lidstrmer, N. (2017). Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Have learnt how illness and accident can affect children's development in the short term . Experimental evidence for differential susceptibility: Dopamine D4 receptor polymorphism (DRD4 VNTR) moderates intervention effects on toddlers externalizing behavior in a randomized controlled trial. Given the associations between functional network segregation at rest and cognitive abilities35,49, and that most research on SES and functional network development has examined segregation rather than integration, we focus specifically here on measures of functional network segregation. Effects of an attachment-based intervention on the cortisol production of infants and toddlers in foster care. 19, 566 (2018). Here, we synthesize evidence that experiences associated with childhood SES affect not only the outcome, but also the pace of brain development, and consider the implications of early brain development for plasticity in childhood. & Jernigan, T. L. The basics of brain development. The authors thank C. Recto for her assistance with figures, and M. Farah, J. Leonard, Y. Hahn and S. Sharp for their helpful comments on earlier versions of the manuscript. R. Soc. Prefrontal areas and the hippocampus show reduced spine density following exposure to this paradigm in the early postnatal period. Mem. Activity-dependent gating of parvalbumin interneuron function by the perineuronal net protein brevican. Environmental-enrichment paradigms prolong and enhance plasticity. Sci. In one study, cognitive stimulation also mediated associations between SES and cortical thickness in prefrontal areas107, highlighting its potential role as a mechanism of the influence of SES on brain development in childhood. 207 334 (Elsevier, 2013). Heuvel, M. P., van den, Scholtens, L. H., Barrett, L. F., Hilgetag, C. C. & de.Reus, M. A. Bridging cytoarchitectonics and connectomics in human cerebral cortex. Psychol. Campbell, F. A., Ramey, C. T., Pungello, E., Sparling, J. JAMA Psychiatry https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0943 (2019). Nat. Psychosom. FA increases steeply in the first few years of life and then more slowly throughout childhood and adolescence214,215. Inhibitory interneurons have a role in limiting resting-state functional connectivity and establishing the boundaries between brain regions that are necessary for network segregation58. Earlier puberty in turn might also accelerate brain maturation. Sci. Neurosci. Gerontology 48, 22 (2002). Duncan, G. J., Magnuson, K., Kalil, A. However, none of these developmental studies examined ageSES interactions. The psychophysiology of adult attachment relationships: Autonomic reactivity in marital and premarital interactions. Snell-Rood, E. & Snell-Rood, C. The developmental support hypothesis: adaptive plasticity in neural development in response to cues of social support. & Tucker-Drob, E. M. How much does education improve intelligence? Cognition and Emotion, 18(6), 799813. Using biological factors to individualize interventions for - PubMed Amso, D., Salhi, C. & Badre, D. The relationship between cognitive enrichment and cognitive control: a systematic investigation of environmental influences on development through socioeconomic status. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.1941 (2020). An important future direction is determining whether SES effects on earlybrain maturation set the stage forearly brain ageing3,187,188. 123, 111119 (1964). Hensch, T. K. Critical period plasticity in local cortical circuits. Purhonen, M., Kilpelinen-Lees, R., Pkknen, A., Yppril, H., Lehtonen, J., & Karhu, J. Adolescents aged 1218 years in low-income households show a steeper curvilinear relationship between age and cortical thickness than do adolescents in high-income households24. J. Psychiatry 157, 163171 (2000). In sum, these studies suggest that the effects of SES on structural development may be reflected in functional development, such that the extended period of structural development associated with high SES gives rise to a longer, slower trajectory of functional network segregation during development, leading to greater segregation. Neural Netw. Therefore, the impact of stress on myelination may depend on the type of stressor and the brain area examined. Being "SMART" About Adolescent Conduct Problems Prevention: Executing a SMART Pilot Study in a Juvenile Diversion Agency. Nat. Irwin, M. R., Olmstead, R. & Carroll, J. E. Sleep disturbance, sleep duration, and inflammation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies and experimental sleep deprivation. This finding is consistent with a large body of work showing that some effects of the early environment are modulated by glucocorticoids85,104. Inclusion of citation diversity statements has been proposed as a way of increasing transparency surrounding citation practice210,211. Han, Z. R., Zhang, X., Cui, L., & Yan, J. The animal paradigm most analogous to the economic deprivation and stress associated with SES is the limited bedding and nesting model in rodents, which involves limiting the dams access to sufficient bedding and nesting material.

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